Cells Of The Immune System – The immune system is the body’s defense against infection and disease and consists of two main branches: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. Both parts are made up of different types of cells that help fight disease and keep the body healthy, each with its own unique characteristics.
All cells of the immune system arise from hematopoietic stem cells located in the bone marrow. Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to lymphocytes and myeloid progenitor cells, each of which differentiates into different cell types.
Cells Of The Immune System
The myeloid lineage consists mainly of cells of the innate immune system, while lymphoid progenitor cells differentiate into three categories: B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
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The innate immune system is the body’s first line of defense and provides a rapid and general immune response, while the adaptive immune system works by detecting and eliminating specific pathogens that threaten the body. Both systems work to fight infection, but the adaptive immune system takes much longer to respond than the innate immune system.
Cellular activity in the innate system is based on pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In other words, it is a specialized protein involved in the detection of conserved antigens of groups of bacteria and viruses. There are two types of structures recognized by PRRs: PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) involved in pathogen recognition and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which function to recognize damaged cells. There are several families of PRRs which include:
In contrast to the encoded, fixed, and germline-restricted PRRs, antigen-specific T-cell receptors (TCRs) and B-cell immunoglobulins (Igs) of the adaptive immune system are the result of somatic genetic rearrangement and can recognize almost any antigen.
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Bone marrow progenitor cells further differentiate into dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages by giving rise to neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (named for their staining properties), mast cells, and monocytes.
Neutrophils, along with eosinophils and basophils, are granulocytes (granule-containing cells) that belong to a family of white blood cells known as polymorphonuclear (PMN) because of their multilobed nucleus. Neutrophils are the first and most common phagocytes that arrive at the site of tissue damage. They are specialized in phagocytosis and digestion of pathogens throughout the body, especially bacteria.
Eosinophils have kidney-shaped lobular nuclei that release the contents of their granules for extracellular digestion of pathogens, especially parasites, and secrete various cytokines and growth factors that affect other cells of the immune system.
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Although they are the least common granulocytes, basophils are the largest granulocytes with bilobed nuclei and histamine-rich granules. Basophils are an important source of IL-4, a cytokine involved in various inflammatory responses, including those associated with allergic symptoms, and induces the differentiation of naïve to mature T helper (Th) cells.
Mast cells are granulocytes found in tissues that secrete histamine and heparin and are involved in wound healing and angiogenesis, as well as defense against parasites.
Monocytes, the largest of the white blood cells, give rise to two distinct types of professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs), dendritic cells (DCs), and macrophages.
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DC is primarily present in tissues that come into contact with the environment outside the body, such as the skin, lungs, and intestines. The main functions of DCs which are considered the most efficient APCs are antigen processing, presentation and cross-presentation to T and B cells. When activated, it can also secrete cytokines such as IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12.
Macrophages (from the Greek ‘makros’ and ‘phagein’, meaning ‘large predator’) are scavenger phagocytes that engulf and process various other unwanted substances from healthy cells, such as cellular debris, pathogens and cancer cells. They are residents of the organization and each has a specific name based on its location. Activated macrophages are divided into two main groups: M1 and M2. M1 macrophages have pro-inflammatory activity, while M2 macrophages participate in wound healing and tissue regeneration and exhibit anti-inflammatory properties.
NK cells are cytotoxic cells with small cytoplasmic granules containing perforin and granzyme that are used to kill target cells. They are produced from common lymphocyte progenitors, which also produce B and T lymphocytes, but belong to the innate immune system. NK cells destroy cancer and infected cells in a rapid response without the need for antigen-specific recognition and activation.
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An important feature of the adaptive immune system is its ability to provide long-term memory. This characteristic enables a faster and more efficient immune response when confronted with specific pathogens.
Once activated, mature B cells differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells that secrete pathogen-specific antibodies that play a central role in the protective immune response. B cells are one of three types of professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). MHC class I proteins are constitutively expressed on the surface of all nucleated cells in the body, while MHC class II proteins are usually expressed on the surface of certain APCs, such as macrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells, along with various costimulatory molecules. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II cells are involved in T cell activation by presenting peptide fragments of processed antigen.
Many types of T cells arise from common T cell precursors. The most commonly known of these cells are memory T cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (Tc), and CD4+ Th cells. Tc cells identify and destroy cells bearing pathogen-specific antigens. Th cells, on the other hand, secrete cytokines that regulate the immune response when activated by antigen-presenting cells. This action is particularly characteristic of the adaptive immune system, where Th cells enhance or suppress the activity of other immune cells. Th cells are further divided into several subsets such as Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg. Each secretes specific cytokine profiles and has specific regulatory functions of the immune response.
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The adaptive immune system requires members of the innate system, such as DCs, to present antigens to initiate and direct the response. Specifically, DCs form a bridge between the innate and adaptive immune systems by transmitting multiple signals that regulate and direct the adaptive immune response. The interaction between the two systems is not one-sided. Phagocytes and other cells of the innate system recognize, through FC receptors, antibodies bound to the pathogen, allowing phagocytes and other mature bone marrow progeny cells to more efficiently identify and destroy the pathogen. . Consequently, these activated phagocytes support the T cell response.
Cellular crosstalk plays an important role in adaptive immune responses, such as naïve B cells, which require mimicry by CD4+ Th cells to mount an effective response to an antigen. This crosstalk also occurs in the innate immune system when activated cells such as neutrophils secrete chemokines and cytokines. This activity affects the recruitment and activation of DCs.
Thus, the two arms of the immune system work together through cellular crosstalk and chemical signals in the form of cytokines and other secreted molecules to best protect the body. Suddenly we’re all talking about immunity. But how do we really understand? Science writer and YouTuber Philip Detmer points out one of the most common misconceptions.
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The next time the weather is a little nicer, don’t think about the army of soldiers waking up and fighting millions of enemies on your behalf.
As the invaders attack hundreds of thousands of cells, the immune system mounts a complex defense, communicates over long distances, and quickly kills millions of these invaders.
What you feel – the runny nose, fever, sore throat, feeling a little “off” – is actually the effect of this battle that is disappearing from sight.
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The immune system is complex because climbing Mount Everest is a great way to take nature walks. Apart from the brain, it is the most complex biological system in the human body.
And now it’s being talked about more than ever. The pandemic has introduced a new vocabulary into our lives. We are talking about natural immunity and vaccine immunity in people who have recovered from COVID-19.
But more talk about immunity does not necessarily mean more understanding. Let’s take an example. Perhaps the biggest misconception is that society is preoccupied with achieving a strong and “overloaded” immune system.
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The internet is full of products that promise just that. From infused coffees to protein powders, from mystical roots dug from the Amazon rainforest to vitamin pills, the list is endless.
But what many people don’t understand is that the immune system can be compromised. It is not that we want to be freed within us without limitation.
In a world where self-improvement is big business, the idea of supercharging your immune system is very appealing. But what we want is not a strong immune system, but a balanced immune system that suppresses all other systems.
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We are talking about a complex and interconnected collection of hundreds of bases and recruitment centers throughout your body. They are connected by a similarly vast and ubiquitous network of ships, superhighways.
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