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Reply Obj. 3: In speaking “of ignorance of choice,” we do not mean that choice is a sort of knowledge, but that there is ignorance of what ought to be chosen.
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SECOND ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 13, Art. 2]
Whether Choice Is to Be Found in Irrational Animals?
Objection 1: It would seem that irrational animals are able to choose. For choice “is the desire of certain things on account of an end,” as stated in _Ethic._ iii, 2, 3. But irrational animals desire something on account of an end: since they act for an end, and from desire. Therefore choice is in irrational animals.
Obj. 2: Further, the very word _electio_ (choice) seems to signify the taking of something in preference to others. But irrational animals take something in preference to others: thus we can easily see for ourselves that a sheep will eat one gra.s.s and refuse another.
Therefore choice is in irrational animals.
Obj. 3: Further, according to _Ethic._ vi, 12, “it is from prudence that a man makes a good choice of means.” But prudence is found in irrational animals: hence it is said in the beginning of _Metaph._ i, 1 that “those animals which, like bees, cannot hear sounds, are prudent by instinct.” We see this plainly, in wonderful cases of sagacity manifested in the works of various animals, such as bees, spiders, and dogs. For a hound in following a stag, on coming to a crossroad, tries by scent whether the stag has pa.s.sed by the first or the second road: and if he find that the stag has not pa.s.sed there, being thus a.s.sured, takes to the third road without trying the scent; as though he were reasoning by way of exclusion, arguing that the stag must have pa.s.sed by this way, since he did not pa.s.s by the others, and there is no other road. Therefore it seems that irrational animals are able to choose.
_On the contrary,_ Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. x.x.xiii.]
says that “children and irrational animals act willingly but not from choice.” Therefore choice is not in irrational animals.
_I answer that,_ Since choice is the taking of one thing in preference to another it must of necessity be in respect of several things that can be chosen. Consequently in those things which are altogether determinate to one there is no place for choice. Now the difference between the sensitive appet.i.te and the will is that, as stated above (Q. 1, A. 2, ad 3), the sensitive appet.i.te is determinate to one particular thing, according to the order of nature; whereas the will, although determinate to one thing in general, viz. the good, according to the order of nature, is nevertheless indeterminate in respect of particular goods. Consequently choice belongs properly to the will, and not to the sensitive appet.i.te which is all that irrational animals have. Wherefore irrational animals are not competent to choose.
Reply Obj. 1: Not every desire of one thing on account of an end is called choice: there must be a certain discrimination of one thing from another. And this cannot be except when the appet.i.te can be moved to several things.
Reply Obj. 2: An irrational animal takes one thing in preference to another, because its appet.i.te is naturally determinate to that thing.
Wherefore as soon as an animal, whether by its sense or by its imagination, is offered something to which its appet.i.te is naturally inclined, it is moved to that alone, without making any choice. Just as fire is moved upwards and not downwards, without its making any choice.
Reply Obj. 3: As stated in _Phys._ iii, 3 “movement is the act of the movable, caused by a mover.” Wherefore the power of the mover appears in the movement of that which it moves. Accordingly, in all things moved by reason, the order of reason which moves them is evident, although the things themselves are without reason: for an arrow through the motion of the archer goes straight towards the target, as though it were endowed with reason to direct its course. The same may be seen in the movements of clocks and all engines put together by the art of man. Now as artificial things are in comparison to human art, so are all natural things in comparison to the Divine art. And accordingly order is to be seen in things moved by nature, just as in things moved by reason, as is stated in _Phys._ ii. And thus it is that in the works of irrational animals we notice certain marks of sagacity, in so far as they have a natural inclination to set about their actions in a most orderly manner through being ordained by the Supreme art. For which reason, too, certain animals are called prudent or sagacious; and not because they reason or exercise any choice about things. This is clear from the fact that all that share in one nature, invariably act in the same way.
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THIRD ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 13, Art. 3]
Whether Choice Is Only of the Means, or Sometimes Also of the End?
Objection 1: It would seem that choice is not only of the means. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 12) that “virtue makes us choose aright; but it is not the part of virtue, but of some other power to direct aright those things which are to be done for its sake.” But that for the sake of which something is done is the end. Therefore choice is of the end.
Obj. 2: Further, choice implies preference of one thing to another.
But just as there can be preference of means, so can there be preference of ends. Therefore choice can be of ends, just as it can be of means.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that “volition is of the end, but choice of the means.”
_I answer that,_ As already stated (A. 1, ad 2), choice results from the decision or judgment which is, as it were, the conclusion of a practical syllogism. Hence that which is the conclusion of a practical syllogism, is the matter of choice. Now in practical things the end stands in the position of a principle, not of a conclusion, as the Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 9). Wherefore the end, as such, is not a matter of choice.
But just as in speculative knowledge nothing hinders the principle of one demonstration or of one science, from being the conclusion of another demonstration or science; while the first indemonstrable principle cannot be the conclusion of any demonstration or science; so too that which is the end in one operation, may be ordained to something as an end. And in this way it is a matter of choice. Thus in the work of a physician health is the end: wherefore it is not a matter of choice for a physician, but a matter of principle. Now the health of the body is ordained to the good of the soul, consequently with one who has charge of the soul’s health, health or sickness may be a matter of choice; for the Apostle says (2 Cor. 12:10): “For when I am weak, then am I powerful.” But the last end is nowise a matter of choice.
Reply Obj. 1: The proper ends of virtues are ordained to Happiness as to their last end. And thus it is that they can be a matter of choice.
Reply Obj. 2: As stated above (Q. 1, A. 5), there is but one last end. Accordingly wherever there are several ends, they can be the subject of choice, in so far as they are ordained to a further end.
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FOURTH ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 13, Art. 4]
Whether Choice Is of Those Things Only That Are Done by Us?
Objection 1: It would seem that choice is not only in respect of human acts. For choice regards the means. Now, not only acts, but also the organs, are means (Phys. ii, 3). Therefore choice is not only concerned with human acts.
Obj. 2: Further, action is distinct from contemplation. But choice has a place even in contemplation; in so far as one opinion is preferred to another. Therefore choice is not concerned with human acts alone.
Obj. 3: Further, men are chosen for certain posts, whether secular or ecclesiastical, by those who exercise no action in their regard.
Therefore choice is not concerned with human acts alone.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that “no man chooses save what he can do himself.”
_I answer that,_ Just as intention regards the end, so does choice regard the means. Now the end is either an action or a thing. And when the end is a thing, some human action must intervene; either in so far as man produces the thing which is the end, as the physician produces health (wherefore the production of health is said to be the end of the physician); or in so far as man, in some fashion, uses or enjoys the thing which is the end; thus for the miser, money or the possession of money is the end. The same is to be said of the means.
For the means must needs be either an action; or a thing, with some action intervening whereby man either makes the thing which is the means, or puts it to some use. And thus it is that choice is always in regard to human acts.
Reply Obj. 1: The organs are ordained to the end, inasmuch as man makes use of them for the sake of the end.
Reply Obj. 2: In contemplation itself there is the act of the intellect a.s.senting to this or that opinion. It is exterior action that is put in contradistinction to contemplation.
Reply Obj. 3: When a man chooses someone for a bishopric or some high position in the state, he chooses to name that man to that post.
Else, if he had no right to act in the appointment of the bishop or official, he would have no right to choose. Likewise, whenever we speak of one thing being chosen in preference to another, it is in conjunction with some action of the chooser.
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FIFTH ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 13, Art. 5]
Whether Choice Is Only of Possible Things?
Objection 1: It would seem that choice is not only of possible things. For choice is an act of the will, as stated above (A. 1). Now there is “a willing of impossibilities” (Ethic. iii, 2). Therefore there is also a choice of impossibilities.
Obj. 2: Further, choice is of things done by us, as stated above (A.
4). Therefore it matters not, as far as the act of choosing is concerned, whether one choose that which is impossible in itself, or that which is impossible to the chooser. Now it often happens that we are unable to accomplish what we choose: so that this proves to be impossible to us. Therefore choice is of the impossible.
Obj. 3: Further, to try to do a thing is to choose to do it. But the Blessed Benedict says (Regula lxviii) that if the superior command what is impossible, it should be attempted. Therefore choice can be of the impossible.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that “there is no choice of impossibilities.”
_I answer that,_ As stated above (A. 4), our choice is always concerned with our actions. Now whatever is done by us, is possible to us. Therefore we must needs say that choice is only of possible things.
Moreover, the reason for choosing a thing is that it conduces to an end. But what is impossible cannot conduce to an end. A sign of this is that when men in taking counsel together come to something that is impossible to them, they depart, as being unable to proceed with the business.
Again, this is evident if we examine the previous process of the reason. For the means, which are the object of choice, are to the end, as the conclusion is to the principle. Now it is clear that an impossible conclusion does not follow from a possible principle.
Wherefore an end cannot be possible, unless the means be possible. Now no one is moved to the impossible. Consequently no one would tend to the end, save for the fact that the means appear to be possible.
Therefore the impossible is not the object of choice.
Reply Obj. 1: The will stands between the intellect and the external action: for the intellect proposes to the will its object, and the will causes the external action. Hence the principle of the movement in the will is to be found in the intellect, which apprehends something under the universal notion of good: but the term or perfection of the will’s act is to be observed in its relation to the action whereby a man tends to the attainment of a thing; for the movement of the will is from the soul to the thing. Consequently the perfect act of the will is in respect of something that is good for one to do. Now this cannot be something impossible. Wherefore the complete act of the will is only in respect of what is possible and good for him that wills. But the incomplete act of the will is in respect of the impossible; and by some is called “velleity,” because, to wit, one would will (_vellet_) such a thing, were it possible. But choice is an act of the will, fixed on something to be done by the chooser. And therefore it is by no means of anything but what is possible.
Reply Obj. 2: Since the object of the will is the apprehended good, we must judge of the object of the will according as it is apprehended. And so, just as sometimes the will tends to something which is apprehended as good, and yet is not really good; so is choice sometimes made of something apprehended as possible to the chooser, and yet impossible to him.
Reply Obj. 3: The reason for this is that the subject should not rely on his own judgment to decide whether a certain thing is possible; but in each case should stand by his superior’s judgment.
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